Identifying Information Design Heuristics
Rebecca Sukach
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This paper identifies common problems faced by information designers and suggests a set of heuristics that could be used to evaluate information design. By examining reception and transmission errors, the paper explores the different channels available to the designer, the errors that can be introduced through those channels, and possible solutions that might mitigate or eliminate those errors. |
Regarded as both an art and a science, information design describes how to effectively present data to convey an idea. The field of information design includes graphic art, information retrieval, web navigation, writing, and more (6). Unfortunately, each profession that contributes to this field has unique guidelines. From the minimalist approach to documentation (3) to cognitive graphic designs (13), guidelines for creating an effective presentation vary widely.
Dissention stems from varied backgrounds and occupational prejudices between artists and writers (11), cognitive scientists and graphic designers, and more. In addition, each profession concentrates on only one aspect of information design - the language, the graphics, the layout, etc. Even the physical form of information transfer - web page, book, audio, film - creates difficulties (1). However, designing effective information does not simply cover the use of creative graphics or page layout, but rather includes the larger context of helping a user find the information they need and enhancing the comprehension of that information through visual aids, audience appropriate language, and affective
Saul Carliner suggests there are three stages of information design (2):
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Physical |
The design of information to help you perform a task. |
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Cognitive |
The design of information to help you to understand how to perform a task. |
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Affective |
The design of information to motivate you to perform a task |
Each of these stages represents a different channel in information design through which the user can receive information. And each channel introduces the potential
"Clutter and confusion are failures of design, not attributes of information" (12)
Inaccessible information - information that is obscured through confusing presentation or improper classification - represents the first hurdle that information designers must overcome. Obvious examples of design failure in presentation (a set of instructions presented as an unbroken, two page paragraph) and navigation (well-written instructions, printed in an appendix with no index or content entries) quickly come to mind. However, more subtle losses of information are just as disastrous. As we transmit information from one forum to another we suffer signal loss - the introduction of noise (and hence, possible confusion) into the existing information. Visual channels, auditory channels, domain familiarity channels - regardless of the media chosen, some channels of communication are sacrificed.
Similarly, when designers create instructions or explanations, they are translating information. Often, in an effort to translate this information effectively, designers simplify the text, eliminating an appropriate richness of content. The problem faced by information designers is not to come up with a simple description of a complex concept. Rather, the problem is to come up with a clear description of a complex object. Simplification applies not only to the depth of complexity, but also to the breadth of content. Tufte (12) reminds designers that deletions are based on personal preference, not content. Information that might appear unimportant to the designer, might be the very piece of information the user needs.
To use a product, it has become increasingly important for us to know the "why's" of the product as well as the "how's" (4). Domain knowledge - the information required for the user to perform a task independent of the provided tool - must be transmitted in addition to the traditional tool knowledge. User education is fast becoming an important part of information design. While domain knowledge significantly enhances information transmission, it also introduces unique challenges to information design.
The gulf of execution (8) represents the distance between the knowledge users possess and the knowledge they require to perform a task. The presentation of domain knowledge must be challenging enough to maintain the interest of the user, while still basic enough to prevent them from becoming lost or confused. Gaps in domain knowledge might represent different motivations on the part of the reader. Often the audience can be classified as Users or Learners (9).
As an audience, users are often “work domain experts.” That is, users understand the work that must be done – they have a thorough grasp of the domain in which they are operating. When a user approaches a piece of software, they are faced with learning the tool, not understanding the work. For example, a technical writer asked to create a technical document understands how to write the document yet might be unfamiliar with a particular word processing tool. As part of an existing work environment, users are motivated to learn the tool.
In contrast, learners are “work domain novices.” That is, learners do not understand the work that must be done – they do not have sufficient background in the domain in which they are operating. When a learner approaches a piece of software, they are faced with learning both the tool and the requirements surrounding the work. For example, a student asked to create a technical document does not understand how to write the document or how to use the word processing tool. Because they are often not part of an existing work environment, learners might not be motivated to learn the tool.
How you feel about something has a significant affect on how well you perform. Our motivation to learn - the extent to which the documentation inspires us - affects our retention, ability to learn, confidence in a product or idea, and openness to new concepts (10). Affective aspects of design are becoming increasingly important to information designers as they realize how attitude affects receptiveness.
Overwhelmed by information (14), users filter information - often introducing significant noise into an already imperfect signal. The more inaccessible or unfriendly the information is perceived, the less signal will be absorbed. Cluttered graphics, harsh colors, obscure or overly simplistic language - these elements can be perceived as difficult to access and therefore too complex or unimportant to matter. By filtering these elements, the embedded information is ignored.
As with physical design, oversimplification in the presentation of information can lead the user to ignore important information because they believe it is "beneath" them (10). The infamous Microsoft paperclip provides information that is promptly ignored by advanced users due to both the basic quality of the content (incorrect estimation of domain knowledge) and the "engaging" rather than professional tone. Useful information presented through this channel cannot reach the user who, through contempt for the persona and tone in which the information is presented, ignores it.
Design issues are not one sided - many problems arise from the signal sent to the user as well as the signal received. Preconceptions, urban legends, and bad habits among technical writers cause as many problems as user reception. The software design truism "Know thy user, for he/she is not you" holds for documentation design as well. Technical writers have a specialized domain knowledge and accompanying language. Terms that writers use every day might be unfamiliar to the end user. "Procedures", "Related Topic", "Context Sensitive" may seem common terms—unless you are not a technical writer (5).
Creeping featurism - the tendency to use a technology or feature because you can - can also cause signal loss by creating unnecessary barriers between users and information (8). A new format may be exciting to work with, but it may be inappropriate for the deliverable. An interactive JavaScript demonstrating how to save a file will be less useful and comprehensible than a quick reference card.
Similarly, allowing aesthetics to rule design often creates problems in transmitting information. A visually appealing presentation is not necessarily an informative presentation (12). If the information cannot be located or is obscured by the color or graphics choice, it no longer exists for the user.
Design heuristics have long been a standard among software designers. These heuristics provide general guidelines that describe common interface issues and how to they should be approached (7). With the advent of object-oriented design and the subsequent advantages of code reuse, design guidelines became more crucial to quickly evaluate and interface for usability as software speeds through development to the desktop.
Despite the disparate deliverables faced by writers - from quick reference cards to printed manuals, from context-sensitive help to interactive web pages - a common set of heuristics can be used to improve and benchmark information design.
Users can make mistakes in navigating documentation - especially online documentation. Designers can create escape routes to allow the user to undo a previous action. For example, a common issue with online help is the "popup within a popup" problem. When a user launches a popup from a popup window, they cannot go back to the original window.
Consistent design means using the same structure throughout the document, website, reference card and so on. Consistency makes comprehension of information easier and quicker. Users are much better at recognizing things than remembering them (8). Designers can make use of this fact by including consistent visual cues and words. For example, a document might use a common graphic to indicate platform-specific steps within general procedures.
Providing feedback (8) allows the user to monitor their own progress. Self-tests, interactive tutorials, and frequent examples offer feedback to help the user confirm concepts. For example, an explanation of how to set up a database could be followed by a case-study example of a database set up. By reading an example of how the database might be set up, the user can confirm or deny the ideas gathered from the previous explanation.
Similarly, if common problems occur at a given stage and create non-intuitive responses, the designer can provide feedback on expected wrong responses. For example, if the user did not fill out the fields in an interface properly before clicking OK, the designer could describe what happens if the response is less than obvious (system turns blue, machine shuts down, and so on). Ideally, these situations are handled by intuitive messages from the program, but if not, the users rely on the documentation to provide timely and accurate feedback.
If the user cannot find the information they need, the information does not exist. Providing multiple paths to the information increases the probability that the information can be located. Proper use of the chosen media can also supplement channel losses. For example, effective use of layers (12), can create the "1+1=3 or more" effect - that is, two layers of information can transmit more signal if properly arranged. Similarly, multimedia presentations, such as adding simple animation to graphics (13), can enhance the perception of the information. For example, a textual description of the circulatory system may not convey the same richness as a small, animated graphic depicting the same information.
Most users do not bother to read every word in the documentation - rather, they scan the documentation to find the item they need to complete their task. Concise design provides the shortest path between your user and the information. Every information element competes with the other elements, lessening the impact and visibility of the relevant elements. For example, a screen shot in a context sensitive help system adds little to the information available to the user (they must have the product open to access the system) and detracts from the useful text.
Designers can support scanning through concise design. For example, in a document, writers can keep paragraphs and sentences short and clear, use tables, bulleted lists, definitions lists, and other visual devices to separate important content further, and use simple graphics to present concepts.
User profiles can help designers become familiar with user language and background, as well as provide insight into the types of presentation the user expects and knows. For example, mainframe users tend to be more comfortable with a book format than a traditional online help format.
By understanding user perceptions, the information designer can more accurately gauge the tone and format for delivery. For example, the language used to explain how cells divide to a biologist will differ greatly from the language used to explain the same idea to an artist. A professional audience must be presented with a professional tone while an engaging persona may be more effective for a reluctant audience. For example, the "Dummies" series of books (texts that explain various topics "for Dummies") uses an engaging, humorous presentation of what is, often, highly technical information. This persona may encourage users who lack confidence in their ability to learn a particular subject to overcome this reluctance to learn.
Natural mappings are the relationships between objects and actions, between what is seen and the system state (8). Designers can use these mappings to confirm a user actions or prevent inappropriate action. After a common domain has been established, designers can take advantage of natural mapping provided by the common coordinate system of the domain to effectively judge how to reduce the data (10). For example, instructions on how to use a software product rarely include steps on using a mouse - a data reduction technique that relies on the user's familiarity with common PC hardware.
When considering issues of information presentation, designers must consider all possible channels through which a user may receive information. Each channel represents an important aspect of information transfer - helping build a complete picture for the user and assisting in noise reduction. Designers must also recognize that noise can be generated by the sender as well as by the receiver. Recognizing the inherent bias in the presentation of information can help designers avoid common pitfalls and see their users more clearly.
The rapid pace of information development and the increasing load of information that must be digested by users underlines the desperate need for quick evaluation tools for information design. Drawn from these common issues, the preliminary information design heuristics presented in this paper provide guidelines that can help designers benchmark deliverables and identify common issues quickly and cheaply. Future work must be done to verify the accuracy of these heuristics and develop scales to create a meaningful continuum of usability issues for information design.
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(11)Tufte, E. (1983). The visual display of quantitative information. Cheshire, CT: Graphics Press.
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(13)Ware, C. (2000). Information visualization : perception for design. San Francisco, CA: Morgan Kaufmann.
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Rebecca Sukach
Technical Writer Manager
Computer Associates
5465 Legacy Drive
Plano, TX, 15024
214-473-1889
Rebecca Sukach is a student in the Interdisciplinary Information Science PhD program at the University of North Texas. Although her original background was in experimental solid state physics, she has been an information developer for seven years and currently works for Computer Associates. During her time as an information developer, she has developed innovative techniques for true single sourcing that address the unique approach required for effective writing and presentation. She has presented at Help University, ACM Conference on Universal Usability (CUU), and ACM SIGDOC.